Hatha Yoga: A Brief Literature Review

Complementary and Alternative MedicineHolistic Health and Well-BeingYogaMeditation
Written By Z. Hamilton Avery

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“Yoga is the journey of the self, through the self, to the self.”
— The Bhagavad Gita

The word “yoga” comes from the Sanskrit word “yuj,” which translates to mean union. This union refers to yoga’s holistic focus, which seeks to unite the body, mind, and spirit. Although yoga can be traced back to the Upanishads (written in the 6th century BC), the landmark teachings of yoga were compiled by Patanjali when he wrote the Yoga Sutras in 200 BC. In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali outlined the eight aspects (commonly referred to as the eight limbs) of yoga, which include yamas (universal ethics), niyamas (individual ethics), asana (physical postures), pranayama (breath control), pratyahara (control of the senses), dharana (concentration), dyana (meditation), and samadhi (bliss). Although yoga has become primarily associated with asana (physical postures), only three of Patanjali’s 196 sutras discuss asana. When considering all eight limbs of the practice, it is understandable why yoga is regarded as a lifestyle rather than simply a form of exercise. Historically, yoga’s physical postures have been practiced to prepare the body for meditation.

Over the years, many different styles of yoga have developed, and they each offer different benefits. In the West, Hatha is one of the best-known styles of yoga and it is also one of the most thoroughly researched. One reason Hatha yoga has been studied so much is its inclusion in Jon Kabat-Zinn’s mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program, which heavily utilizes practices from the yogic tradition. Hatha yoga is considered a gentle and accessible style of yoga that incorporates breathing techniques (pranayama), physical postures (asana), and meditation (dyana).

Huang et al. (2013) utilized the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-14) to measure the stress levels of a control group (33 participants) who received no intervention and an experimental group (30 participants) who practiced one 90-minute Hatha yoga class each week for eight weeks. After just one 90-minute yoga class, the experimental group’s stress levels decreased (-9%) while the control group’s stress levels increased (+1%). After the experimental group completed the eight-week intervention, they experienced even greater reductions in perceived stress (-16%).

Shohani et al. (2018) studied the effects of Hatha yoga on 52 women who attended three 60-70-minute Hatha yoga classes each week for four weeks. Participants’ levels of stress, anxiety, and depression were measured at the beginning and end of the study using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21). After the intervention, participants experienced decreased levels of stress (-28%), anxiety (-26%), and depression (-22%).

Vizcaino (2013) studied the effects of Hatha yoga on ten participants living with type 2 diabetes. Participants attended three 50-60-minute Hatha yoga classes each week for six weeks. At the beginning and end of the study, participants’ levels of stress, anxiety, and self-care were measured using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-14), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and the Summary of Diabetes Self-Care Activities (SDSC) questionnaire. Additionally, salivary cortisol levels were measured pre- and post-intervention. After the intervention, participants experienced a decrease in stress (-23%), state anxiety (-27%), trait anxiety (-15%), and cortisol levels (-60%) and an increase in self-care activities (+30%).

West et al. (2004) studied African dance and Hatha yoga to see which was more effective at reducing stress in healthy college students. The control group (30 participants) listened to a 90-minute biology lecture while the dance group (21 participants) attended a 90-minute African dance class, and the yoga group (18 participants) attended a 90-minute Hatha yoga class. Participants’ stress levels were measured at the beginning and end of the study using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-14) and by measuring salivary cortisol levels. After the interventions, perceived stress decreased in all three groups (control: -2%, dance: -15%, yoga: -18%). Although cortisol levels did not change in the control group, they increased in the dance group (+66%) and decreased in the yoga group (-17%).

“Words fail to convey the total value of yoga. It has to be experienced.”
— BKS Iyengar

References

Arora, S., & Bhattacharjee, J. (2008). Modulation of immune responses in stress by yoga. International Journal of Yoga, 1(2), 45. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-6131.43541

Basavaraddi, I. V. (2015). Yoga: Its origin, history and development. Ministry of External Affairs of Government of India.

Chong, C. S., Tsunaka, M., & Chan, E. P. (2011). Effects of yoga on stress management in healthy adults: A systematic review. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 17(1), 32.

Cowen, V. S., & Adams, T. B. (2005). Physical and perceptual benefits of yoga asana practice: Results of a pilot study. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 9(3), 211-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2004.08.001

Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Haller, H., Steckhan, N., Michalsen, A., & Dobos, G. (2014). Effects of yoga on cardiovascular disease risk factors: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Cardiology, 173(2), 170-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2014.02.017

Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Langhorst, J., & Dobos, G. (2016). Is one yoga style better than another? A systematic review of associations of yoga style and conclusions in randomized yoga trials. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 25, 178-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2016.02.015

Gatantino, M. L., Bzdewka, T. M., Eissler-Rnsso, J. L., Holbrook, M. L., Mogck, E. P., Geigle, P., & Farrar, J. T. (2004). The impact of modified Hatha yoga on chronic low back pain: A pilot study. Alternative Therapies in Health & Medicine, 10(2).

Huang, F. J., Chien, D. K., & Chung, U. L. (2013). Effects of Hatha yoga on stress in middle-aged women. Journal of Nursing Research, 21(1), 59-66. https://doi.org/10.1097/jnr.0b013e3182829d6d

Madanmohan, Mahadevan, S. K., Balakrishnan, S., Gopalakrishnan, M., & Prakash, E. S. (2008). Effect of six weeks yoga training on weight loss following step test, respiratory pressures, handgrip strength and handgrip endurance in young healthy subjects. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 52(2), 164-70.

Marshall, M., McClanahan, M., McArthur Warren, S., Rogers, R., & Ballmann, C. (2020). A comparison of the acute effects of different forms of yoga on physiological and psychological stress: A pilot study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 6090. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176090

Pascoe, M. C., & Bauer, I. E. (2015). A systematic review of randomised control trials on the effects of yoga on stress measures and mood. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 68, 270-282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.07.013

Riley, D. (2004). Hatha yoga and the treatment of illness. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 10(2), 20-25.

Ross, A., & Thomas, S. (2010). The health benefits of yoga and exercise: A review of comparison studies. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(1), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2009.0044

Salmon, P., Lush, E., Jablonski, M., & Sephton, S. E. (2009). Yoga and mindfulness: Clinical aspects of an ancient mind/body practice. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 16(1), 59-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2008.07.002

Sengupta, P. (2012). Health impacts of yoga and pranayama: A state-of-the-art review. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 3(7), 444.

Sharma, M., & Haider, T. (2013). Yoga as an alternative and complementary therapy for patients suffering from anxiety: A systematic review. Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine, 18(1), 15-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156587212460046

Shohani, M., Badfar, G., Nasirkandy, M. P., Kaikhavani, S., Rahmati, S., Modmeli, Y., Soleymani, A., & Azami, M. (2018). The effect of yoga on stress, anxiety, and depression in women. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 9. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_242_16

Vizcaino, M. (2013). Hatha yoga practice for type 2 diabetes mellitus patients: A pilot study. International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 23(2), 59-65. https://doi.org/10.17761/ijyt.23.2.b57106j138027205

West, J., Otte, C., Geher, K., Johnson, J., & Mohr, D. C. (2004). Effects of Hatha yoga and African dance on perceived stress, affect, and salivary cortisol. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 28(2), 114-118. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324796abm2802_6

Woodyard, C. (2011). Exploring the therapeutic effects of yoga and its ability to increase quality of life. International Journal of Yoga, 4(2), 49. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-6131.85485

Z. Hamilton Avery

Z. Hamilton Avery, LMSW, MSW (U/S), LMT, CYT-1,000, TIYT (he/they) is a queer and non-binary therapist, health educator, wellness coach, body and energy worker, yoga and meditation teacher, and abstract artist in Tulsa, Oklahoma. In addition to having obtained over a dozen certifications in various modalities of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), Z holds an associate’s degree in pre-nursing studies, a bachelor’s degree in psychology, and a master’s degree in social work. When supporting clients and students, Z takes a humanistic, person-centered, strengths-based, trauma-informed approach. Their practice is grounded in compassion, harm reduction, inclusivity, social justice, and evidence-based interventions. Ultimately, Z’s mission is to provide a safe and non-judgmental space for adolescents (13+) and adults who are navigating challenges such as anxiety, depression, trauma, addiction, pain, and chronic illness; he does this by offering sessions, classes, groups, workshops, retreats, and trainings.

Understanding that mental health is interconnected with many other facets of life, Z takes a holistic approach to therapy. Knowing that there is no one-size-fits-all treatment, he strives to honor the uniqueness of each client by custom-tailoring his approach to best meet the needs, preferences, and goals of each individual. For this reason, Z believes that it is imperative to be cross-trained in many different treatment approaches. As a therapist, they utilize a variety of evidence-based practices, including motivational interviewing (MI), cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), and written exposure therapy (WET). As a body and energy worker, Z is certified to practice massage therapy, Thai yoga massage, myofascial release, craniosacral therapy, and reiki. They are also certified in both Chinese and Japanese styles of acupuncture. After completing more than 1,000 hours of accredited yoga teacher training (primarily in India), Z is certified to teach various styles of yoga, including Hatha, Kundalini, yin, and restorative. He also researches and writes about topics including stress, trauma, self-care, mindfulness, self-compassion, holistic health and well-being, CAM, HIV/AIDS, and issues related to the Two-Spirit, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, agender, plus (2SLGBTQIA+) community.

https://www.therapywithz.com
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